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Fresh Water
Groundwater is water found underground within cracks and between particles of rock and soil. The water cycle is one of the most essential processes on earth and it is all driven by energy. The water cycle is basically the continuous movement of water. The cycle is made up of 3 main processes- evaporation, condensation, and precipitation. Energy from the sun (solar energy) causes water on the surface to evaporate and in this process, the water goes from a liquid state to gas (water vapor). After evaporation, the next step is condensation. As the warm air rises, it cools and expands. Cooler air can hold less water vapor, therefore condensation occurs and the vapor forms small droplets. When the water droplets (or ice crystals) in a cloud become too heavy, gravity causes them to fall to the ground in the form of precipitation. Most water molecules return to the atmosphere soon after falling. The remaining either becomes groundwater or a glacier. A glacier is a large mass of ice moving on land. Most fresh water is found in groundwater or glaciers. Only a small portion of fresh water is located in the atmosphere, streams, and lakes. Streams and lakes contain very less fresh water, but they are crucial in forming the shape of the land. When rain falls, it enters the ground, but some also forms runoff. Runoff is water that flows over the surface. Runoff also flows into streams and a network of streams in turn, form a river system. A major river has many small streams, called tributaries. A watershed is the area of land that contributes water to a river system. Deep below the surface, there is the saturated zone, where pore spaces are filled with fresh water. The top of this zone is a water table. Water flows more easily through some rocks than others. A permeable rock is a a rock that allows water to easily pass through it, such as sandstone and limestone. A permeable rock that is saturated with water is an aquifer.
Weathering and Mass Movement
Erosion is the process wears down and carries away rock and soil. Erosion acts through weathering, the force of gravity, and the movement of streams, groundwater, glaciers, wind, and waves. The process of erosion begins with weathering. Weathering is the process by which rocks are chemically altered or physically broken down into fragments at or near earth’s surface. The two forms of weathering are chemical and mechanical. Mechanical weathering is physically breaking down rock into smaller fragments. Occurs from wedging, abrasion, growth of plant roots. Wedging is the most common form of weathering. Weathering is when water expands as it freezes and it pries open any cracks the water has seeped into. Abrasion occurs when rocks scrape or grind against one another. Chemical weathering is when a rock is broken down by chemical reactions. This occurs because of water being good solvent and acid rain. The rate at which mechanical weathering and chemical weathering occur depend on: temperature, water, and type of rock. Chemical Weathering occurs more in places with high temperatures and a lot of rain. Mechanical occurs more in places where conditions alternate between freezing and thawing. Mass movement is the downward movement of rock and soil due to gravity. Landslides occur after heavy rain or after earthquakes loosen materials on a steep slope. Mudflow is the rapid mass movements of soil and sediment mixed with water. Creep is when soil gradually moves down a slope and it often occurs because of ice. Slumping is when weak layers of soil or rock move suddenly downslope as a single unit.
Groundwater is water found underground within cracks and between particles of rock and soil. The water cycle is one of the most essential processes on earth and it is all driven by energy. The water cycle is basically the continuous movement of water. The cycle is made up of 3 main processes- evaporation, condensation, and precipitation. Energy from the sun (solar energy) causes water on the surface to evaporate and in this process, the water goes from a liquid state to gas (water vapor). After evaporation, the next step is condensation. As the warm air rises, it cools and expands. Cooler air can hold less water vapor, therefore condensation occurs and the vapor forms small droplets. When the water droplets (or ice crystals) in a cloud become too heavy, gravity causes them to fall to the ground in the form of precipitation. Most water molecules return to the atmosphere soon after falling. The remaining either becomes groundwater or a glacier. A glacier is a large mass of ice moving on land. Most fresh water is found in groundwater or glaciers. Only a small portion of fresh water is located in the atmosphere, streams, and lakes. Streams and lakes contain very less fresh water, but they are crucial in forming the shape of the land. When rain falls, it enters the ground, but some also forms runoff. Runoff is water that flows over the surface. Runoff also flows into streams and a network of streams in turn, form a river system. A major river has many small streams, called tributaries. A watershed is the area of land that contributes water to a river system. Deep below the surface, there is the saturated zone, where pore spaces are filled with fresh water. The top of this zone is a water table. Water flows more easily through some rocks than others. A permeable rock is a a rock that allows water to easily pass through it, such as sandstone and limestone. A permeable rock that is saturated with water is an aquifer.
Weathering and Mass Movement
Erosion is the process wears down and carries away rock and soil. Erosion acts through weathering, the force of gravity, and the movement of streams, groundwater, glaciers, wind, and waves. The process of erosion begins with weathering. Weathering is the process by which rocks are chemically altered or physically broken down into fragments at or near earth’s surface. The two forms of weathering are chemical and mechanical. Mechanical weathering is physically breaking down rock into smaller fragments. Occurs from wedging, abrasion, growth of plant roots. Wedging is the most common form of weathering. Weathering is when water expands as it freezes and it pries open any cracks the water has seeped into. Abrasion occurs when rocks scrape or grind against one another. Chemical weathering is when a rock is broken down by chemical reactions. This occurs because of water being good solvent and acid rain. The rate at which mechanical weathering and chemical weathering occur depend on: temperature, water, and type of rock. Chemical Weathering occurs more in places with high temperatures and a lot of rain. Mechanical occurs more in places where conditions alternate between freezing and thawing. Mass movement is the downward movement of rock and soil due to gravity. Landslides occur after heavy rain or after earthquakes loosen materials on a steep slope. Mudflow is the rapid mass movements of soil and sediment mixed with water. Creep is when soil gradually moves down a slope and it often occurs because of ice. Slumping is when weak layers of soil or rock move suddenly downslope as a single unit.
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Water Shapes the Land
The primary force of erosion is gravity. Gravity pulls sediment and water downhill. Deposition is the process in which sediment is laid down in new locations. Erosion begins when runoff carries small particles of soil downhill. Remember, runoff is a result of the water cycle and all of this is kickstarted by the solar energy heating up and evaporating the water on the surface. Runoff forms channels that get bigger to create gullies. Gullies flow together to form streams. Most sediment in stream is carried in suspension, but some bounce along the bottom (also called saltation). A stream's ability to erode mainly depends on speed. Fast streams cause more erosions. Some features formed by water erosions include oxbow lakes, V shaped valleys, water falls, and meanders. V shaped valleys are formed when a stream erodes rock at its streambed and the sides of the valley become steeper. Mass movements on the stream's slopes create V shaped valleys. A meander forms where a river curves slightly and the water on the outside of the curve moves more rapidly than the water inside. Sediment is deposited inside and a loop-like bend in the river forms. An oxbow lake forms when a separate curved lake is formed by sediment cutting a meander off from rest of lake. As a stream slows down, it deposits sediment. Flowing water produces alluvial fans and deltas. An alluvial fan is made as a stream flows out of mountains and on to the plains, it slows down and sediment settles out. A delta is a mass of sediment deposited where a river enters a large body of water. Chemical weathering can also cause groundwater erosion, including caves and sinkholes. A stalactite forms when water drips from cavern ceiling forms icicle like formation. A stalagmite forms when a pillar of minerals form from dripping water. A sinkhole forms when erosion weakens a layer of limestone and entire portions of ground collapse.
Glaciers and Wind
Glaciers form when more snow falls than it melts or sublimates. As layers of snow build up, the weight on the snow below increases. There are two types of glaciers. A continental glacier is a thick sheet of ice that covers a huge area. Most of the fresh water is found here. A valley glacier is a glacier that occurs high in a mountain. Glaciers are very effective at eroding, despite their slow speed. Glaciers erode rock in two methods: abrasion and plucking. Plucking is when ice widens cracks in bedrock beneath glacier and pieces of loosened rock are frozen to the bottom and are carried away. Glaciers can cause cirques, horns, U-shaped valleys, and glacial lakes. Cirques are large bowl-shaped valleys in mountainside. When glaciers flow through V shaped valleys, they form U shaped valleys. When a glacier melts, it deposits a load of sediment. Glacial sediment is also known as till. The till forms moraines (mound of sediment) at the downhill end of glaciers and along the sides. Wind also causes erosion and deposition. Wind erodes land by abrasion and deflation. Deflation is when wind picks up and carries away loose surface material. Wind erosion forms dunes and loess. Dunes are deposits formed by overblown sand. Loess are deposits formed from windblown dust
The primary force of erosion is gravity. Gravity pulls sediment and water downhill. Deposition is the process in which sediment is laid down in new locations. Erosion begins when runoff carries small particles of soil downhill. Remember, runoff is a result of the water cycle and all of this is kickstarted by the solar energy heating up and evaporating the water on the surface. Runoff forms channels that get bigger to create gullies. Gullies flow together to form streams. Most sediment in stream is carried in suspension, but some bounce along the bottom (also called saltation). A stream's ability to erode mainly depends on speed. Fast streams cause more erosions. Some features formed by water erosions include oxbow lakes, V shaped valleys, water falls, and meanders. V shaped valleys are formed when a stream erodes rock at its streambed and the sides of the valley become steeper. Mass movements on the stream's slopes create V shaped valleys. A meander forms where a river curves slightly and the water on the outside of the curve moves more rapidly than the water inside. Sediment is deposited inside and a loop-like bend in the river forms. An oxbow lake forms when a separate curved lake is formed by sediment cutting a meander off from rest of lake. As a stream slows down, it deposits sediment. Flowing water produces alluvial fans and deltas. An alluvial fan is made as a stream flows out of mountains and on to the plains, it slows down and sediment settles out. A delta is a mass of sediment deposited where a river enters a large body of water. Chemical weathering can also cause groundwater erosion, including caves and sinkholes. A stalactite forms when water drips from cavern ceiling forms icicle like formation. A stalagmite forms when a pillar of minerals form from dripping water. A sinkhole forms when erosion weakens a layer of limestone and entire portions of ground collapse.
Glaciers and Wind
Glaciers form when more snow falls than it melts or sublimates. As layers of snow build up, the weight on the snow below increases. There are two types of glaciers. A continental glacier is a thick sheet of ice that covers a huge area. Most of the fresh water is found here. A valley glacier is a glacier that occurs high in a mountain. Glaciers are very effective at eroding, despite their slow speed. Glaciers erode rock in two methods: abrasion and plucking. Plucking is when ice widens cracks in bedrock beneath glacier and pieces of loosened rock are frozen to the bottom and are carried away. Glaciers can cause cirques, horns, U-shaped valleys, and glacial lakes. Cirques are large bowl-shaped valleys in mountainside. When glaciers flow through V shaped valleys, they form U shaped valleys. When a glacier melts, it deposits a load of sediment. Glacial sediment is also known as till. The till forms moraines (mound of sediment) at the downhill end of glaciers and along the sides. Wind also causes erosion and deposition. Wind erodes land by abrasion and deflation. Deflation is when wind picks up and carries away loose surface material. Wind erosion forms dunes and loess. Dunes are deposits formed by overblown sand. Loess are deposits formed from windblown dust
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The Restless Oceans
Salinity is the proportion of dissolved salt in water. The average salinity is 35 grams of dissolved salt in each kilogram of ocean water. Light and temperature decrease with ocean depth as pressure increases. Light cannot penetrate deeper than 200 meters. As water gets deeper, water is colder and denser. The continental shelf is the gently sloping plain that forms an apron of shallow water along the edges of continents. The deepest point in the ocean is the Mariana Trench, more than 11 kilometers below sea level. A surface current is a large stream of ocean water that moves continuously in the same path. Winds blowing across surface of ocean cause continuous flow of surface currents. Unlike surface currents, deep currents are caused by differences in density of ocean water. They are also known as density currents. At certain places in the ocean, water from the deep ocean moves upward towards the surface. This is called upwelling. In upwelling, winds blow warm surface water aside. This allows cold water from the deep water to rise and take the place of warmer water. Waves cause erosion in two ways: abrasion and hydraulic action. Hydraulic action is when waves pound on cracks in rocks. First a wave fills the crack, then more water is forced in. The crack becomes bigger and the rock breaks into pieces. Longshore drift is the process that moves sand constantly along the shore.
Salinity is the proportion of dissolved salt in water. The average salinity is 35 grams of dissolved salt in each kilogram of ocean water. Light and temperature decrease with ocean depth as pressure increases. Light cannot penetrate deeper than 200 meters. As water gets deeper, water is colder and denser. The continental shelf is the gently sloping plain that forms an apron of shallow water along the edges of continents. The deepest point in the ocean is the Mariana Trench, more than 11 kilometers below sea level. A surface current is a large stream of ocean water that moves continuously in the same path. Winds blowing across surface of ocean cause continuous flow of surface currents. Unlike surface currents, deep currents are caused by differences in density of ocean water. They are also known as density currents. At certain places in the ocean, water from the deep ocean moves upward towards the surface. This is called upwelling. In upwelling, winds blow warm surface water aside. This allows cold water from the deep water to rise and take the place of warmer water. Waves cause erosion in two ways: abrasion and hydraulic action. Hydraulic action is when waves pound on cracks in rocks. First a wave fills the crack, then more water is forced in. The crack becomes bigger and the rock breaks into pieces. Longshore drift is the process that moves sand constantly along the shore.
Erosion is a process that is all kickstarted by solar energy. Solar energy causes uneven heating of earth and high and low pressure areas, which creates wind. Wind in turn, erodes rock in different ways. Solar energy also evaporates water and after precipitation, some of the water becomes runoff and the rest becomes groundwater. The runoff then carries small particles down hill and eventually streams get bigger and bigger. In turn, faster flowing streams erode the landscape heavily. Also, as light cannot reach beyond 200 meters in the ocean, low pressure and high pressure zones are created in the ocean. The difference in density also creates deep currents. Also, the warm surface water is blown aside and the cold water takes the place of warm water. The cold water then beats on the rock until the cracks fill with water. This keeps on happening until the rock breaks apart.